The influence of the built–to–natural environment continuum on the life satisfaction of the older adult population in Europe

Ageing well, frequently evaluated through life satisfaction (LS), is a universal aim for societies, and is a particularly pressing concern in Europe with its growing older adult population. LS is linked to the surrounding environment through responses to ecological system changes, as described by the ecological theory of ageing. Previous research primarily focused on either built or natural environments separately. This study examines the effects of dwelling size (proximal factor), degree of urbanicity (intermediate factor), and forest coverage and weather-related loss events (distal factors) within the physical environment continuum on the LS of older adults across 25 European Union countries and Switzerland (N = 23,596). A two-level mixed model analysis, adjusted for relevant control variables, was conducted using individual-level data from the 8th wave of the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe, NUTS 3-level data for forest coverage, and country-level data for climate risk. The results indicate positive associations between LS and dwelling size, degree of urbanicity, and forest coverage. Between-country variation accounted for approximately 5% of the variance in LS, and climate risk showed no significant association with LS. The countries were allocated to a statistically significant number of clusters according to the relationship between the degree of urbanicity and LS. Analysing built and natural environments as a continuum can inform policies to support LS in older adults.